By the opening of the summer in 1680, a precarious peace lingered in New Mexico. A long drought eradicated crops and livestock. Apaches raided and stole what little food remained on an increasingly frequent basis. Nerves frayed and the pueblo people, who may have sought refuge in their own religious customs, were denied their tradition by Spanish missions.

Among those punished by the church for a dogged devotion to pueblo religion was a war chief from San Juan Pueblo whom the Spanish knew as El Popé. Now regarded as one of the greatest of Pueblo leaders, a scant historical record explains Popé's rise. Most likely, he narrowly escaped execution in 1675 in a purge conducted by missionaries to weaken pueblo religiosity. Five years later, still harboring rightful anger, Popé probably brought his cause to a tribal council.

No written explanation of that meeting exists, but it is likely that Popé used the council to gain the loyalty of other pueblo leaders. They also may have created a strategy to attack and surround the Spanish before the arrival of Spanish goods from Mexico. On Aug. 12, the council reasoned, the Spanish would be most vulnerable. The settlers would have little reason to suspect an attack.

Despite the great distances that separated the pueblos, Popé's leadership brought the tribes together and coordinated an attack. Even with a head start, the Spanish could do little to defend themselves. The pueblo inhabitants vastly outnumbered the Hispanic farmers and missionaries. Most of New Mexico folded in relatively short order.

The Spanish retreated to Santa Fe to take refuge in the city's thin defenses. What armaments the city did possess could not match the more than 2,000 pueblo soldiers that soon gathered outside the capital. As governor, Antonio de Otermin had few choices and only about 100 men capable of bearing arms. The Spanish fought as long as they could and perhaps inflicted heavy casualties on the Natives. But the siege cut the Spanish off from their water supply, and the Spanish were forced to retreat.

Otermin distributed provisions among those still loyal to him and made ready to march south toward safety. Unbeknownst to those in Santa Fe, other loyalists at Isleta Pueblo had already abandoned New Mexico to seek safety in El Paso. Otermin's party would soon follow.

Popé and his brethren allowed the retreating Spaniards to leave safely, but quickly disposed of Spanish influence. Churches burned, and 21of the region's 33 missionaries were killed. Pueblo leaders encouraged their brethren to abandon Spanish culture at all costs. They even let loose many of their horses, accidentally providing ponies to the Plains cultures that would soon make the small Spanish workhorses icons of the American West.

The years following the Pueblo Revolt left few historical footprints. Popé somehow lost his life and power, failing in all likelihood to take control of the province. Even without his leadership, pueblos reasserted their unique personalities. Kivas were rebuilt and Native religion restored. The city of Santa Fe itself became a stronghold for Tewas and Tanos.

The Spanish, marooned just south of the Rio Grande near El Paso, did not fare well in the interim. They had trouble with their crops and lived in relative squalor. And, despite the fact they eagerly desired to retake New Mexico, it would take 12 years before a suitable leader would emerge to reclaim in the province. In 1693, Don Diego de Vargas led the Reconquista to take New Mexico back for the Spanish crown.

Despite their continued struggle with drought and raids, the Pueblos were not eager to accept the return of Spanish rule. During the Revolt they had successfully overthrown the Spanish crown and reasserted their cultural traditions. They had no intention of submitting to colonial conquistadors without further resistance. Vargas used careful diplomacy and superior arms to subdue the Pueblos. Even after the successful reconquest, however, the legacy of the Pueblo Revolt ensured some degree of cultural autonomy for the pueblos.

A stable and sedentary Native population has surrounded Santa Fe since its inception, perhaps placing it apart from other North American settlements of Quebec, Jamestown or even St. Augustine. Therefore, the Pueblo Revolt and Spanish reconquest remained at the core of the Santa Fe narrative. Despite uneasy tension that lingers today, the pueblos, with the exception of a handful of violent outbreaks, have tolerated the existence of the capital.

Jason Strykowski is a doctoral student at The University of New Mexico.